PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA

PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA Numer tematyczny ZDOLNOŚCI Tom L (LXIV) PW nr 8 2015 (lipiec-grudzień) WYDAWNICTWO AKADEMII PEDAGOGIKI SPECJALNEJ Warszawa 2015

REDAKCJA redaktor naczelna dr hab. Barbara Weigl, APS zastępca redaktor naczelnej dr hab. Grażyna Poraj, UŁ sekretarze redakcji dr Magdalena Poraj-Weder, UW, dr Magdalena Rowicka, APS RADA NAUKOWA prof. dr hab. Marta Bogdanowicz, UG dr hab. Elżbieta Dryll, UW prof. dr hab. Maria Ledzińska, UW prof. dr hab. Wiesława Limont, UMK dr Justyna Melonowska, APS prof. dr hab. Elżbieta Tarkowska, APS dr Zuzanna Toeplitz, UW Teresa Ogrodzińska, prezeska zarządu Fundacji Rozwoju Dzieci im. Jana Amosa Komeńskiego dr Barbara Malak-Minkiewicz, International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) prof. Oleg Kokun, Instytut Psychologii Akademii Nauk Ukrainy prof. Franz Mönks, Radbound University Nijmegen prof. Peter Moss, Institute of Education University of London REDAKTORZY PROWADZĄCY NUMER prof. dr hab. Wiesława Limont, UMK, dr hab. Grażyna Poraj, UŁ REDAKTOR STATYSTYCZNY dr hab. Wiesław Szymczak, UŁ REDAKTORZY JĘZYKOWI Monika Bielska-Łach, Hanna Cieśla, Weronika Kostecka (język polski) Anna Maria Kopinski (język angielski) Tłumaczenie streszczeń na język angielski Renata Wójtowicz Wersja papierowa jest wersją pierwotną (referencyjną) Copyright by Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej, Warszawa 2015 ISSN 0033-2860 Adres redakcji Redakcja czasopisma Psychologia Wychowawcza Akademia Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej ul. Szczęśliwicka 40 02-353 Warszawa psychologiawychowawcza@aps.edu.pl www.aps.edu.pl/wydawnictwo/czasopisma/ e-psychologiawychowawcza.pl

SPIS TREŚCI Wprowadzenie (Wiesława Limont)............................ 7 PRACE PSYCHOLOGICZNE Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell From traditional perspectives on giftedness to embracing talent development: A transition based on scholarship in psychological science........................... 9 Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell Od tradycyjnych perspektyw na temat zdolności do psychologii rozwoju talentu: zmiana oparta na wiedzy psychologicznej................................ 20 Beata Kunat Pasja jako kategoria badawcza w świetle dualistycznego modelu R.J. Vallerand a.................................... 31 KULTUROWE I SPOŁECZNE KONTEKSTY WYCHOWANIA Jean S. Peterson Low-achieving gifted youth: reflections on two decades of Peterson research........................................ 43 Jean S. Peterson Młodzież zdolna osiągająca słabe wyniki w nauce: Podsumowanie dwudziestu lat pracy badawczej prowadzonej przez Peterson.............. 55 Maciej Karwowski, Grzegorz Szumski Czy obecność uczniów zdolnych w klasie zagraża akademickiemu obrazowi siebie ich rówieśników?............... 70 Grażyna Mendecka Doświadczenia szkolne wybitnych twórców............ 88 STRACONA DEKADA Michael M. Piechowski A bird who can soar : overexcitabilities in the gifted..... 107 Michael M. Piechowski Jak ptak, wysokim lotem : wzmożone pobudliwości psychiczne u osób zdolnych..................................... 122 PROBLEMY PRAKTYKI PSYCHOLOGICZNEJ Irena Pufal-Struzik Spostrzeganie i ocenianie siebie przez młodzież średnich szkół plastycznych i liceów ogólnokształcących analiza porównawcza............ 139 Małgorzata Siekańska Rola osób znaczących we wspieraniu rozwoju talentów sportowych 153

4 Spis treści WYDARZENIA, POLEMIKI, RECENZJE Wiesława Limont Recenzja: Michael M. Piechowski, Mellow out, they say. If I only could. Intensities and sensitivities of the young and bright............... 171 Maria Ledzińska Recenzja: Manfred Spitzer, Cyfrowa demencja. W jaki sposób pozbawiamy rozumu siebie i swoje dzieci....................... 174 Dominika Jastrzębska Sprawozdanie z Międzynarodowej Konferencji Excellence and innovation in Education: Creativity Innovation Challenge, 1 4.07.2015....... 176 Małgorzata Siekańska Sprawozdanie z Kongresu FEPSAC 2015........... 178 Urszula Markowska-Manista 9 Letnia Szkoła UNESCO 2015 Readaptacja i reintegracja jako problemy dzieci-uchodźców..................... 181 PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA, NR 8/2015, 3 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction (Wiesława Limont)............................. 7 PSYCHOLOGICAL PAPERS Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell From traditional perspectives on giftedness to embracing talent development: A transition based on scholarship in psychological science........................... 9 Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell Od tradycyjnych perspektyw na temat zdolności do psychologii rozwoju talentu: zmiana oparta na wiedzy psychologicznej................................ 20 Beata Kunat Passion as a research category In the light of R.J. Vallerand s dualistic model......................................... 31 CULTURAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF EDUCATION Jean S. Peterson Low-achieving gifted youth: Reflections on two decades of Peterson research........................................ 43 Jean S. Peterson Młodzież zdolna osiągająca słabe wyniki w nauce: Podsumowanie dwudziestu lat pracy badawczej prowadzonej przez Peterson.............. 55 Maciej Karwowski, Grzegorz Szumski Does the presence of gifted students in the classroom threaten the academic self-image of their peers?................ 70 Grażyna Mendecka Outstanding authors school experiences............... 88 A LOST DECADE Michael M. Piechowski A bird who can soar : Overexcitabilities in the gifted...... 107 Michael M. Piechowski Jak ptak, wysokim lotem : wzmożone pobudliwości psychiczne u osób zdolnych.................................... 122 ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICE Irena Pufal-Struzik Self-perception and self-esteem in art high school students and general high school students A comparative analysis................. 139

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Małgorzata Siekańska The role of significant people in supporting the development of sporting talents..................................... 153 EVENTS, POLEMICS AND REVIEWS Wiesława Limont Review: Michael M. Piechowski, Mellow out, they say. If I only could. Intensities and sensitivities of the young and bright............... 171 Maria Ledzińska Review: Manfred Spitzer, Cyfrowa demencja. W jaki sposób pozbawiamy rozumu siebie i swoje dzieci [Digital dementia. What we and our children are doing to our minds]. Słupsk 2013, Wydawnictwo Dobra Literatura.... 174 Dominika Jastrzębska Report on the International Conference: Excellence and innovation in Education: Creativity Innovation Challenge, July 1 4, 2015..... 176 Małgorzata Siekańska Report on the FEPSAC Congress 2015............ 178 Urszula Markowska-Manista 9th UNESCO Summer School 2015 Readaptation and reintegration as problems of refugee children.................... 181 PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA, NR 8/2015, 5 6

PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA, NR 8/2015, 7 8 WPROWADZENIE Problemy związane z rozwojem osób zdolnych są złożone i mimo licznych badań nie znaleziono wystarczająco empirycznie zweryfikowanych odpowiedzi na pojawiające się w obszarze zdolności i uzdolnień pytania. Związane jest to z różnym podejściem do rozumienia samego pojęcia zdolności, osoby zdolnej i jej specyficznych potrzeb. Dodatkowe komplikacje pojawiają się, jeśli bierze się pod uwagę zróżnicowanie jakościowe uzdolnień specyficznych dziedzinowo, ich powiązanie ze zdolnościami twórczymi, inteligencją i osobowością. W literaturze przedmiotu można znaleźć dwa stanowiska wobec rozumienia zdolności. W jednym podkreśla się, że o osobie zdolnej można mówić tylko w kontekście wyraźnych jej sukcesów i osiągnięć. W drugim natomiast, uwaga skoncentrowana jest na osobie zdolnej, na unikatowej, indywidualnej drodze jej specyficznego, często asynchronicznego rozwoju. Celem tego numeru Psychologii Wychowawczej jest próba zaprezentowania różnych postaw i badań związanych ze zdolnościami z perspektywy polskich i amerykańskich badaczy. W artykule Reny F. Subotnik, Pauli Olszewski-Kubilius i Franka C. Worrella omówiono autorską koncepcję Mega Modelu, powstałą jako efekt szerokiej analizy literatury przedmiotu. Podstawowym założeniem modelu jest teza, że zdolności mają charakter rozwojowy są plastyczne i poddają się kształceniu. Zdaniem autorów wskaźnikami zdolności są osiągnięcia, kryteria, dla których zmieniają się w czasie, dlatego przed osobami zdolnymi stoją wyzwania ciągłego rozwijania swojego potencjału. W kolejnym tekście Beata Kunat skoncentrowała się na problemie pasji, autorka omówiła dualistyczny model pasji harmonijnej i obsesyjnej, a także przybliżyła Skalę Pasji wykorzystywaną w badaniach. W następnym artykule Jean Peterson zaprezentowała wyniki wieloletnich badań prowadzonych nad młodzieżą z syndromem nieadekwatnych osiągnięć szkolnych. Autorka poszukiwała przyczyn niskich wyników uzyskiwanych przez uczniów zdolnych, analizując złożone uwarunkowania społeczne, rozwojowe, osobowościowe i kulturowe. Dla Peterson, w odróżnieniu od autorów Mega Modelu, ważne jest holistyczne rozumienie osoby zdolnej i ujmowanie zdolności w złożonym kontekście kształtowania się osobowości. Na problemy kształcenia uczniów zdolnych zwrócili uwagę Maciej Karwowski i Grzegorz Szumski. Przeprowadzone analizy teoretyczne oraz wyniki otrzymane z badań wskazały, że ważnym, dla uczniów kształconych w klasach zintegrowanych, punktem odniesienia jest średnia wyników w klasie, a nie obecność wybitnie uzdolnionej jednostki, która praktycznie jest niezauważana przez kolegów. Zagadnieniu doświadczeń szkolnych wybitnych twórców poświęcony jest artykuł Grażyny Mendeckiej. Autorka na podstawie danych zaczerpniętych ze źródeł biograficznych przeanalizowała wpływ szkoły na rozwój wy-

8 Wprowadzenie bitnych twórców, stwierdzając, że nie ma jednego wzorca, który byłby związany z pozytywnymi lub negatywnymi zależnościami pomiędzy specyficznymi doświadczeniami szkolnymi a wybitnymi osiągnięciami w późniejszym wieku. W artykule Michała M. Piechowskiego omówione zostały problemy osób zdolnych analizowane z perspektywy teorii Kazimierza Dąbrowskiego. Szczególną uwagę autor zwrócił na wzmożone pobudliwości psychiczne, które powodują, że doznania osób zdolnych są głębsze i bogatsze. Inaczej także doświadczają one i rozumieją rzeczywistość, rozwój osób zdolnych jest unikatowy, często pełen głębokich przeżyć i wewnętrznych konfliktów. W koncepcji Dąbrowskiego zdolności są ujmowane jako integralna część rozwijającej się osobowości. W części poświęconej problemom praktyki psychologicznej znajdują się dwa artykuły związane ze zdolnościami kierunkowymi. W pierwszym Irena Pufal-Struzik przybliża badania przeprowadzone wśród uczniów uzdolnionych plastycznie. Otrzymane wyniki wykazały, że uczniowie ci charakteryzują się samoświadomością osobową i refleksyjną. Artykuł Małgorzaty Siekańskiej poświęcony jest roli osób znaczących we wspieraniu rozwoju talentów sportowych. Analizy relacji rodzinnych wykazały pozytywny wpływ na rozwój talentu: poczucia wzajemnego zrozumienia, pozytywnego nastroju i pewności z możliwości korzystania z pomocy rodziców. W bieżnym numerze zaprezentowano artykuły związane ze zdolnościami; kolejny poświecony będzie problemom zdolności poszerzony o wybrane zagadnienia twórczości. Wiesława Limont Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 7 8

PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA, NR 8/2015, 9 19 DOI: 10.5604/00332860.1178580 P R A C E P S Y C H O L O G I C Z N E RENA F. SUBOTNIK American Psychological Association, Washington, DC USA PAULA OLSZEWSKI-KUBILIUS Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA FRANK C. WORRELL University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA USA FROM TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON GIFTEDNESS TO EMBRACING TALENT DEVELOPMENT: A TRANSITION BASED ON SCHOLARSHIP IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Abstract: The work described in this article provides a rationale for a movement away from traditional views of giftedness toward a psychology of developing talent. Although we recognize that individuals have differing amounts of innate and acquired abilities, the central feature of this perspective is that ability, whether intellectual, artistic, or physical, is malleable and needs to be continually developed to meet increasingly more challenging indicators of giftedness over time. In 2011, Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, and Worrell searched the broad psychology literature on giftedness. In the course of this search, they were able to incorporate conceptions from earlier models with research traditions in expertise, high performance in sport and art, as well as the development of eminence in scholarly domains. The resulting synthesis led to the creation of the mega-model, named to recognize the contributions of those theories and models that came before. Key words: talent development, gifted education, psychosocial skills, eminence, expertise Until the late 1970s in the US, gifted children and gifted education were inextricably associated with high IQ (Dai, 2010; Tannenbaum, 1983, 1986). As a result, the predominant mode of identification for programming or services employed individualized or group tests of intelligence. With identification came assumptions of giftedness as a permanent state of superior functioning regardless of level of achievement. This paradox could not sustain itself, not only because it is hard to engender public support for a narrow group of learners who are not held accountable to the same rules as others, but also because it became clear to researchers that there existed a serious mismatch between life outcomes of high IQ children grown up and the childhood experiences of eminently gifted adults. The work described in this article provides AAddres: rsubotnik@apa.org; p-olszewski-kubilius@northwestern.edu; frankc@berkeley.edu

10 Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell a rationale for a movement away from traditional views of giftedness toward a psychology of developing talent. Although recognizing that individuals have differing amounts of innate and acquired abilities, the central feature of this perspective, called the Mega-Model, is that ability, whether intellectual, artistic, or physical, is malleable and needs to be continually developed to meet increasingly more challenging indicators of giftedness over time (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, & Worrell, 2011). The Mega-Model also addresses variation in psychosocial skill, opportunity, and chance factors as important contributors of life long talent development. The article begins with a brief description of theoretical frameworks that informed the Mega-Model. This is followed by a delineation of the central tenets of the model, and how each tenet emerged from the psychology literature. Next a comparison is presented between a talent development approach and traditional views of giftedness. Finally, we present our vision of a program that reflects the scientific literature. FROM CONCEPTIONS OF GIFTEDNESS AS IQ TO THE MEGA-MODEL Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19 The first movement away from IQ as the prevalent source of giftedness identification came in the form of a 1978 paper by Renzulli. Renzulli argued that giftedness was the outcome of an interaction among three constructs above average (but not necessarily superior) ability, creativity, and motivation leading to creative productivity. Whether the article resonated with the gestalt at the time or else served as an impetus for others scholarship, a plethora of additional theories and models that challenged the singularity of IQ emerged in the literature during the 1980s (see Sternberg & Davidson, 1986, 2005). We provide a brief description of a select number of conceptions that remain influential till today. Tannenbaum s model, first widely published in 1983, differentiated gifted potential in children from true giftedness that could be expressed only by adults who had contributed in some way to improving the human condition. Five factors essential to transforming childhood potential to adult fulfillment of talent include (a) g, or general intellectual ability, (b) special abilities in domains, (c) supportive environments, (d) non-cognitive personal attributes, and (e) chance factors. This conception of giftedness very much influenced our thinking in that we recognize the contribution of both general and special abilities as necessary but not sufficient to attaining one s creative life goals. We also found support in the current psychology literature for the important roles of (a) opportunities provided, (b) psychosocial skills, and (c) chance in transforming potential into fulfillment (Subotnik et al., 2011). Concurrently, Sternberg published a widely read and discussed triarchic theory of human intelligence (1985), which he developed further into a triarchic theory of intellectual giftedness(1986). The three central components of the triarchicmodel are analytic intelligence used to solve problems, creative intelligence that is derived from insights attained through analysis of experience, and practical intelligence that translates into the ability to read and alter environmental contexts to optimize the success of one s ideas. We have adopted several key aspects of Sternberg s model, especially translating the concept of practical intelligence into the notion that psychosocial or mental skills maintain motivation and persistence through competitive and increasingly challenging stages of development. Although Sternberg presented the three intelligences as different ways in which one can be gifted, we view these abilities as cumulative in the

From traditional perspectives on giftedness to embracing talent development... 11 talent development process. That is, enhanced analytic and practical intelligence can lead to opportunities for creative productivity. Psychologist Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues (1985) conducted comprehensive retrospective research on eminent adults in six domains, two in the arts (piano performance and sculpture), two in the sciences (mathematics and neurology), and two in sport (tennis and swimming). The Bloom study explored the unique features of talent development in each domain as well as commonalities across the six. Across all domains, the initial stage is exploratory and relatively playful, and the second stage is focused on acquiring expertise in skills and content and establishing an identity with the domain. A third stage concentrates on generating a unique niche or contribution to a domain. In our mega-model (see Figure 1), we overlay the Bloom stages with another theoretical framework proposed by Sternberg on developing expertise (1998). Sternberg described the acquisition of expertise as a series of transitions from abilities to competencies, and from competencies to expertise. The mega-model proposes an additional transition from expertise to a stage beyond that might be called eminence or scholarly productivity/artistry (Subotnik & Jarvin, 2005). An additional group of theories emerged in the first decade of the 21 st century, with two that particularly influenced the development of the mega-model. Actiotope (Ziegler, 2005) focuses on the interaction of the environment with a person s actions in a domain. Ziegler melded motivation theory (the drives, attributions, and beliefs held by the person) with systems theory. According to Ziegler, gifts and talents are not personal attributes. Rather, individuals actions are affected by the environment and their associated motivations in a great feedback loop. The Actiotope theory has led Ziegler and his colleagues (Ziegler, Stoeger & Vialle, 2012) to argue that gifted education and the eminence literature need to be reconciled, most particularly by moving the emphasis of our research from identification to evidence-based services and provisions. Finally, Subotnik and Jarvin(2005; Jarvin & Subotnik, 2010), based on their work conducted in music conservatories, developed a model of psychosocial skills development called scholarly productivity/artistry (orsp/a). The goal of the SP/A work was to pinpoint psychosocial skills that play important roles throughout the process of preparing musicians, as well as psychosocial skills that have diminishing or escalating importance over time. The SP/A model also addressed the notion that giftedness is not identifiable at just one point in development (e.g., elementary or middle school), but varies by domain or sub-domain. This principle is most obvious in music where string instruments are seriously cultivated at a young age, and voice (other than child singers) much later. The mega-model builds on the SP/A s psychosocial skills development and includes the concept that domains and sub-domains have varied trajectories with different beginning points for identification of talent and initial instruction (see Figure 2). THE MEGA-MODEL In 2011, we reviewed the broad psychology literature on giftedness (Subotnik et al., 2011). In the course of this search we were able to incorporate conceptions from earlier models as described above with research traditions in expertise, high performance in sport and art, as well as additional work exploring the development of eminence in scholarly domains. The resulting synthesis led to the creation of the mega-model, named to honor the contributions of those theorists and model builders that came before. Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19

12 Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19 FIGURE 1. From ability to eminence in a domain. Domains have developmental trajectories with different start, peak, and end times (a). Giftedness in a domain is evaluated in relationship to others (b) initially in terms of potential, later by demonstrated achievement, and finally, in adulthood, by eminence. The talent development process involves several transitions whereby abilities are developed into competencies, competencies into expertise, and expertise into eminence (c). These transitions are distinguished by levels of creativity (d), beginning initially with little-c creativity (independent thinking, entertaining different perspectives, creation of projects and products that are novel when compared to those of peers), and ultimately the big-c creativity required for eminence. These transitions involve shifting emphasis from person (creative approach and attitude ), to process (acquiring process skills and mindsets), to product (creation of intellectual, aesthetic, or practical products or performances). Each stage of the talent development process is also characterized by different strategies and goals of instruction (f) initially, to engage young people in a topic or domain ( falling in love ), then helping the individual develop the needed skills, knowledge, and values ( teaching for technique ), and finally helping talented individuals develop their unique niche, style, method or area of application ( mentoring for personalized niche ). Movement from ability to eminence can be delimited (g) by factors such as low motivation, mindsets that prevent coping with setbacks or thwart resiliency, less than optimal learning opportunities, or chance events. Progress can be enhanced, maintained or accelerated (h) by the availability of educational opportunities including out of school enrichment and mentoring, psychological and social support from significant individuals, and social capital. This figure was originally published in Subotnik et al. (2011).

From traditional perspectives on giftedness to embracing talent development... 13 Music Early specialization (e.g. boy soprano) Early specialization (e.g. violin) Later specialization (e.g. flute) Latest specialization (e.g. vocal arts) Childhood Start/ Peak Adolescence Adulthood Early Middle Late Early Middle Late End Start Peak End Start Peak End Start Peak End Athletics Early specialization (e.g. gymnastics) Later specialization (e.g. track and field) Start Start Peak/ End Peak/ End Academic Early specialization (e.g. mathematics) Later specialization (e.g. psychology) Start Peak End Start Peak End FIGURE 2. Domains have different trajectories. This figure was originally published in Subotnik et al. (2011). The mega-model includes the following central tenets: Ability is important to talent development, particularly abilities in specific domains. Although this statement seems patently obvious to those of us who study and work with gifted children and youth, the psychological literature has also been captivated by ideas of outstanding performance resulting only from chance factors (Colvin, 2008; Syed, 2010), being the oldest in a cohort (Gladwell, 2008), or disciplined practice (Ericsson & Crutcher, 2014). We confirmed that, in fact, these are important contributors to high performance, but are enhanced significantly by the existence of abilities (see also Macnamara, Hambrick & Oswald, 2014). Ability is malleable and needs to be continuously developed by way of opportunities with challenging experiences and peers. The notion that ability is malleable is derived from the previously described models such as Sternberg s (1985, 1986), and more centrally from theories of motivation derived from social psychology, most particularly mindsets (Dweck, 2006). The age associated with the optimal time to begin talent development varies by domain, with some beginning in childhood and others in adolescence or adulthood (see Figure 2). As indicated in the description of the SP/A model above, some musical domains begin earlier than others. In addition, sport training begins in childhoodin figure skating and gymnastics, but in adolescence in sports such as football (Malina, 2010). Only a limited number of domains are proving grounds for prodigies (e.g., mathematics, chess, music; Feldman, 1986), where as other Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19

14 Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19 domains, whether by virtue of tradition or reliance on emotional maturity and experience, begin in late adolescence or early adulthood (e.g., social sciences, caring professions, or diplomacy). When opportunities to develop talent are offered, it is important that they are taken up by individuals who are prepared to commit, at least for a time, to increasing their expertise in a domain, especially given the limited number of available opportunities due to competition for funding from a variety of causes. Talented youth who do not take the opportunities offered, whether due to lack of interest, peer pressure, or lack of confidence squander opportunities for talent development that could benefit themselves as individuals as well as society. Psychosocial skills, such as self-confidence, mindsets and task commitment, play an increasingly important role in meeting the short and long term goals of gifted individuals. Some opportunities become available by chance. Just like those offered in a planned way, opportunities offered by chance (e.g., a lead actor falls ill) must be taken up by individuals who are prepared to take risks such as these. Confidence is bolstered through preparedness, practice, and drive. Social skills are highly valuable as well, especially in domains that involve teamwork such as laboratory science, surgical theaters, acting or musical ensembles, or business ventures. The long term goal of gifted education should be to inspire talented individuals with dreams of contributing to the world s health or beauty and prepare them to strive for these aspirations. Although it is extremely difficult to predict who will make eminent contributions, we do know a lot about the skills, knowledge, and experiences that tend to place talented individuals onthe most promising pathways to success. Although gifted education is responsible for providing challenge and growth for participating students from one year to the next, it also needs to have a long term plan for those children and youth in their midst who have the aspiration to change the world. Our comprehensive synthesis of the literature culminated in a working definition of giftedness: Giftedness is a developmental process that is domain specific and malleable. Although the path may begin with demonstrated potential, giftedness must be developed and sustained by way of training and interventions in domain-specific skills and programs and deliberate development of the psychological and social skills needed to pursue difficult new paths. The goal of this developmental process is to transform potential talent during youth into outstanding performance and innovation in adulthood (Subotnik et al., 2011, p. 7). THE IMPORTANCE OF A CONSENSUS DEFINITION OF GIFTEDNESS It is not unusual for competing perspectives on research, policy, and practice to exist in any field, but tensions within the field of gifted education center around our very core: What is giftedness? And what is the goal of gifted education? These tensions convey a mixed message to the general education community and to policy makers regarding what we know and what we promote. This confusion also precludes us from effectively offering a coherent set of recommendations on important educational issues

From traditional perspectives on giftedness to embracing talent development... 15 such as how to close achievement gaps between our most advantaged and disadvantaged pupils, or how schools should be reformed and structured to engage more learners and boost achievement. In the traditional approach to gifted education, giftedness is viewed as a stable trait of the individual (Dai, 2010). Accordingly, a gifted individual is uniquely and qualitatively different from age peers based on his or her general intellectual abilities, as well as psychologically, emotionally, and even morally. In this view, personal standards of excellence, defined by the individual, are more valued than societal ones, and personal development is a priority, even over the development of the talent per se (Dai, 2010). The talent development approach, in contrast, views giftedness as something one develops in a domain, and domains have different trajectories, values, and ways of conducting business that require different sets of cognitive skills, psychosocial skills, and environmental supports. Unlike in the traditional view, the focus of interest is on developing the talent and the individual characteristics and skills that are required to reach the goal of creative productivity within the domain. To be sure, these two views have many points of intersection. In both views, ability is important whether it is general or specific ability. In addition, both agree that gifted students have special needs, even if proponents disagree on whether these are primarily inherent in being gifted or as a result of choosing to follow a pathway to high achievement. Talent development emphasizes the role of non-cognitive factors, including dispositions, such as motivation and task persistence as important to achievement that need to be actively cultivated. Current research within and outside of our field does not support the tenets of the traditional gifted child perspective. More specifically, according to Subotnik et al. (2011), theory and evidence support the following claims: Although general ability measures may be helpful, particularly with young children when abilities are more diffuse, patterns of specific abilities do a much better job of predicting adult success (Feldhusen, 2005; Lubinski, 2010; Sosniak, 1985a, 1985b; Subotnik & Jarvin, 2005; Winner, 1996). Intelligence is malleable and can increase dramatically with intervention and appropriate education (Dweck, 2006; Sternberg, 1998; Subotnik, Robinson, Callahan & Johnson, 2012). Gifted children vary in terms of personality as much as non-gifted children and there is little empirical support for many of the long lists of positive characteristics attributed to gifted students. Neither is there strong empirical evidence of their emotional fragility or vulnerabilities as a result of being gifted. Too often, behaviors such as maladaptive perfectionism, feelings of being different, or extreme sensitivity and intensity have been put forward as defining characteristics of giftedness, when they may, in fact, be outcomes of the interaction between gifted children and their home, community, and school environments as a result of or independent of the label (Freeman, 2010; Neihart, 1999; Worrell, 2010). As is the case for every child, positive and negative characteristics are a result of the interaction between the child and his or her environment. If there is a unique psychology of gifted children, it is more likely a result of striving to be exceptional and the resulting ramifications of being out of sync in a particular cultural or social context, rather than inherent in being gifted per se. Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19

16 Rena F. Subotnik, Paula Olszewski-Kubilius, Frank C. Worrell A DOMAIN SPECIFIC TALENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19 Imagine a gifted program that focused on domain specific talent. How might such a program be manifested? First, a program emphasizing specific talent would use some form of identification procedure or system that is content valid and related to and predictive of performance in the domain. For a talent development program in the humanities, for example, verbal skills would be most important and assessments might be used to ensure that needed academic skills in writing, comprehending, and synthesizingare sufficiently developed. Although it would be useful to have a good understanding of mathematics, an otherwise talented and deeply interested student would not be screened out because of less than stellar quantitative scores. Additionally, instead of relying exclusively on standardized tests, a candidate for a program would be identified using samples of work that demonstrate a record of interest and initial explorations in a domain, including perhaps work done outside of school in on-line writing communities. Deep interests serve as excellent predictors of continued pursuit of challenging fields (Tai, Liu, Maltese & Fan, 2006). However, relying on measures of interest can have two drawbacks. One is that a submitted piece of work, for example, may reflect the interests and input of the family in addition to or instead of the child. One solution to this problem is time consuming, but potentially rewarding, which is to have face to face interviews or auditions of work. A more important and systemic difficulty with gauging interest is that interests are formed by experiences, and children who have not been exposed to enrichment in various domains may not have had a chance to develop their interests sufficiently to warrant consideration in such a program or to make their talent obvious. The solution to this problem is also expensive and challenging, and that is to provide a wide array of enrichment experiences available for free or for little cost to all children in the community and as early as is developmentally appropriate. Curriculum in a talent development program would be far more specialized than in a general academic gifted program. All requirements in terms of content and skills such as prescribed curriculum standards would be provided; however, most elective courses would in the service of the domain, as in schools for the performing arts. For example, in a specialized science school, there may be courses in writing that go beyond what is typically required and offered, such as courses in technical writing or research methods. There would also be a wider array of courses in science, technology, engineering and mathematics, providing both greater breadth of exposure to science fields as well as opportunities for increased depth of study. Other opportunities such as internships, apprenticeships, mentorships, competitions, conferences, or authentic research/work experiences would be available to all who sought them out. High level talent development cannot be conducted entirely in schools (Bloom, 1981; Olszewski-Kubilius & Thomson, 2014, 2015). A comprehensive talent development program needs an outreach coordinator who can help to establish links between students and community, corporate, or university programs and resources, like those linked to the European Talent Support Network (http://www.talentcentrebudapest. eu/). Summer and after school classes and mentorships in the form of Talent Search or the Academic Talent Development Program are also affiliated with individual univer-

From traditional perspectives on giftedness to embracing talent development... 17 sities in the US, Ireland, and Spain (Corwith & Olszewski-Kubilius, 2012; Erwin & Worrell, 2012; Worrell, 2003). A commitment to high level talent development also requires greater openness on the part of schools to having students complete required, additional, or advanced studies through supplemental and outside-of-school programs. Schools would work collaboratively with universities and community organizations to create articulated pathways for students depending upon their particular areas of interest and ability. Finally, an important component of a talent development program involves psychosocial skills coaching to help participants in pursuing challenges beyond their current knowledge, engaging in competitions, or taking advantage of chance opportunities. This aspect can involve reversing negative self-talk, practicing high risk intellectual risk taking in safe conditions that mimic adverse ones, and becoming aware that everyone has doubts at some point when things are not going as expected. Psychosocial skill development can be offered by trained teachers, coaches, and mentors who provide support to students within various, domain related, challenging academic activities. The time to rethink gifted education has come. This call is not intended to minimize or displace gifted programs that are currently exist for high IQ children. Rather, we encourage policy makers and the field to support youngsters who are highly talented in a domainin developing and enhancing their talents. By expanding opportunities toothers whose gifts lie in talent domains other than high IQ, we increase the capacity to harness the creative productivity of our youth. Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). (1985). Developing Talent in Young People. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Bloom, B.S. & Sosniak, L.A. (1981). Talent development vs. schooling. Educational Leadership, 39, 86 94. Colvin, G. (2008). Talent is Overrated: What Really Separates World-class Performers from Everybody Else. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Corwith, S., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2012). Talent search. In T. Cross & J.R. Cross (Eds.), Handbook for School Counselors Serving Gifted Students (pp. 543 554). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Dai, D. (2010). The Nature and Nurture of Giftedness: A New Framework for Understanding Gifted Education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Dweck, C.S. (2006). Mindsets. The Psychology of Success. New York, NY: Ballantine. Ericsson, K.A. &Crutcher, R.J. (2014). The nature of exceptional performance. In P.B. Baltes, D.L. Featherman & R.M. Lerner (Eds.), Life-span Development and Behavior, Vol. 10, 187 217. REFERENCES Erwin, J.O. & Worrell, F.C. (2012). Assessment practices and the underrepresentation of minority students in gifted and talented education. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30, 74 87. doi:10.1177/0734282911428197. Feldhusen, J.F. (2005). Giftedness, talent, expertise, and creative achievement. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of Giftedness (2 nd. ed., pp. 64 79). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Feldman D.H. (1986). Nature s Gambit: Child Prodigies and the Development of Human Potential. New York, NY: Basic Books. Freeman, J. (2010). Gifted Lives: What Happens When Gifted Children Grow Up. New York, NY: Routledge. Gladwell, M. (2008). Outliers: The story of Success. New York, NY: Little, Brown, & Company. Jarvin, L. & Subotnik, R.F. (2010). Wisdom from conservatory faculty: Insights on success in classical music performance. Roeper Review, 32, 78 87. doi:10.1080/02783191003587868. Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 9 19

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PSYCHOLOGIA WYCHOWAWCZA, NR 8/2015, 20 30 DOI: 10.5604/00332860.1178604 RENA F. SUBOTNIK American Psychological Association, Washington, DC USA PAULA OLSZEWSKI-KUBILIUS Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA FRANK C. WORRELL University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA USA OD TRADYCYJNYCH PERSPEKTYW NA TEMAT ZDOLNOŚCI DO PSYCHOLOGII ROZWOJU TALENTU: ZMIANA OPARTA NA WIEDZY PSYCHOLOGICZNEJ Streszczenie: W artykule przedstawiono przyczyny zmiany z tradycyjnego rozumienia zdolności w kierunku psychologii rozwoju talentu. Autorzy przyjmują, że jednostki mają zróżnicowaną liczbę wrodzonych i nabytych zdolności, ale główną cechą tego podejścia jest założenie, że zdolności, zarówno intelektualne, jak i artystyczne lub fizyczne, są plastyczne i podatne na zmiany. Wymagają one nieustannego rozwoju, by sprostać, z czasem, coraz bardziej wymagającym wskaźnikom uzdolnień. Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius oraz Worrell w 2011 r. dokonali przeglądu obszernej literatury psychologicznej na temat uzdolnień. Dzięki temu mogli połączyć koncepcje z wcześniejszych modeli z badaniami z zakresu eksperckości, związanymi z osiąganiem wysokich wyników w sporcie i sztuce, a także wybitności w nauce. Efektem tej syntezy jest Mega Model, którego nazwa wskazuje na źródła i powiązania z wcześniejszymi teoriami i modelami. Słowa kluczowe: rozwój talentu, edukacja osób zdolnych, umiejętności psychospołeczne, wybitność, eksperckość Do późnych lat 70. XX w. dzieci zdolne oraz edukacja osób zdolnych w Stanach Zjednoczonych były nierozerwalnie kojarzone z wysokim ilorazem inteligencji (Dai, 2010; Tannenbaum, 1983, 1986). To sprawiło, że dominującym sposobem identyfikacji zdolności były indywidualne lub grupowe testy inteligencji, które były podstawą do opracowania odpowiednich programów i świadczeń. Ten sposób identyfikacji spowodował przyjęcie założenia, że zdolności są stałym stanem wybitnego funkcjonowania, niezależnie od uzyskanego poziomu osiągnięć. Paradoks ten nie mógł trwać w nieskończoność, ponieważ trudno jest uzyskać wsparcie publiczne dla wąskiej grupy uczniów, którzy nie podlegają takim samym zasadom jak inni uczniowie, a także dla- Adresy do korespondencji: rsubotnik@apa.org; p-olszewski-kubilius@northwestern.edu; frankc@berkeley.edu

OD TRADYCYJNYCH PERSPEKTYW NA TEMAT ZDOLNOŚCI DO PSYCHOLOGII ROZWOJU TALENTU... 21 tego, że badacze zauważyli istotną rozbieżność między osiągnięciami w dorosłym życiu dzieci z wysokim IQ a doświadczeniami z dzieciństwa wybitnie uzdolnionych osób dorosłych. W artykule opisano przyczyny odejścia od tradycyjnych poglądów na kwestie uzdolnień w kierunku psychologii rozwoju talentu. Autorzy przyjmują, że jednostki posiadają zróżnicowaną liczbę wrodzonych i nabytych zdolności, ale główną cechą koncepcji, nazwanej Mega Modelem, jest założenie, że zdolności, czy to intelektualne, artystyczne czy fizyczne, zmieniają się i wymagają nieustannego rozwoju, by sprostać z czasem coraz bardziej wymagającym wskaźnikom uzdolnień (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, Worrell, 2011). W Mega Modelu uwzględniono także zagadnienia związane z umiejętnościami psychospołecznymi, szansami oraz przypadkowymi zdarzeniami jako czynnikami ważnymi dla rozwoju talentu przez całe życie. Artykuł rozpoczyna się krótką charakterystyką podstaw teoretycznych, które miały wpływ na powstanie Mega Modelu. Następnie przedstawione są główne założenia modelu oraz ich powiązania z danymi, które można znaleźć w literaturze psychologicznej. W kolejnej części porównano podejście rozwojowe talentu z tradycyjnymi poglądami na temat uzdolnień. Na zakończenie autorzy opisują własną propozycję programu, który powstał w wyniku przeglądu literatury przedmiotu. OD ZDOLNOŚCI ROZUMIANYCH JAKO IQ DO MEGA MODELU Pierwsze odejście od ilorazu inteligencji jako dominującego źródła identyfikacji uzdolnienia pojawiło się w artykule Renzulliego z 1978 roku. Renzulli twierdził, że zdolności są wynikiem interakcji trzech konstruktów ponadprzeciętnych (ale niekoniecznie wybitnych) zdolności, twórczości i motywacji prowadzących do efektywności twórczej. Niezależnie od tego, czy jego koncepcja była zgodna z ówczesnym podejściem, czy też posłużyła jako impuls dla innych w pracy naukowej, w latach 80. pojawiło się wiele teorii oraz modeli, które kwestionowały wyjątkowość IQ (patrz Sternberg, Davidson, 1986, 2005). Dalej przedstawiono krótki opis wybranych koncepcji, których znaczenie nadal pozostaje istotne. W modelu Tannenbauma, który po raz pierwszy opublikowano w 1983 r., autor rozróżniał potencjalne zdolności istniejące u dzieci od rzeczywistych uzdolnień, które ujawniają się tylko u osób dorosłych, mających wkład w poprawę kondycji człowieka. Pięć kluczowych czynników ważnych dla transformacji posiadanego przez dziecko potencjału w rzeczywisty talent osoby dorosłej, to: (a) czynnik g lub zdolności ogólne, (b) uzdolnienia kierunkowe, (c) wsparcie środowiska, (d) czynniki pozaintelektualne oraz (e) przypadek. Ta koncepcja uzdolnień miała istotny wpływ na nasze myślenie, że udział zdolności, zarówno ogólnych, jak i kierunkowych, jest niezbędny, ale niewystarczający do osiągnięcia twórczych życiowych celów. We współczesnej literaturze psychologicznej można znaleźć potwierdzenie istotnej roli (a) dostarczonych szans, (b) umiejętności psychospołecznych oraz (c) roli przypadku w transformacji potencjału w rzeczywiste zdolności (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius, Worrell, 2011). Jednocześnie Sternberg (1985) opublikował szeroko dyskutowaną oraz bardzo popularną triadową teorię inteligencji, którą następnie rozwinął w triadową teorię zdolności intelektualnych (Sternberg, 1986). Trzy główne elementy modelu triadowego to: inteligencja analityczna, wykorzystywana w rozwiązywaniu problemów, inteligencja twórcza, pochodząca z wglądów uzyskiwanych przez analizę doświadczenia oraz inte- Psychologia wychowawcza, nr 8/2015, 20 30