XIII. named George Code. p. 136.

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1 1. Introduction Law is concerned with human behaviour. Although different societies encourage different forms of behaviour all human beings have the capacity to behave in any way prescribed, on the condition we do understand what the law requires us to do. The same applies to legal translation, which in order to be successful in terms of communication must incorporate target language-oriented text-normative equivalents. Legal translators are usually left to their own devices in making their decisions as to the right stylistics and tone to be adopted in translation. These decisions are usually based on comparative analysis of random parallel texts, which may prove to be a time-consuming and tiresome activity. This introduction aims to offer practical information regarding the conventions and norms which are characteristic of legislative texts. It is also designed to aid translators in their work by offering a practical comparative manual of the Polish and English drafting styles and other useful information on legal translation Legal norm A legal norm can be defined to contain a normative statement that produces some legal effects. Any legal norm must convey information in order to fulfil its function of communicating standards of behaviour. Consequently, a norm serves as a scheme of interpretation 1. The problem of the legal norm has also been discussed in terms of legislative sentences 2 which consist of the following elements: fact-situation (Tatbestand) which specifies the conditions under which the particular rule operates in other words, it gives conditions of application of a given norm; statement of law (Tatfolge) which prescribes the action to be taken and by whom in the event the conditions constituting the fact-situation are met; in point of fact, it determines legal modality of the norm Fact-situation in English legislative sentences The statement of law, which specifies its modality, is always in the main clause (or clauses), whereas the elements pertaining to the fact-situation are more flexible, being formulated as adverbial modifiers in a subordinate if or where clause. The clauses which express fact-situation can be introduced in English by conjunctions such as if (je eli, jeœli), on condition that (pod warunkiem, e...), provided that (pod warunkiem, e..., o ile...), providing that (pod warunkiem, e..., o ile...), so / as long as (dopóki..., tak d³ugo jak..., pod warunkiem, e...) and unless (je eli nie..., jeœli nie..., o ile nie..., chyba e...). In the case of English legislative texts, however, legal rules are being formulated mostly as conditional sentences, with if clauses and where clauses introducing the fact-situation. 1 Van Kralingen, 2 One of the first analyses of legislative texts was written in 1843 by an English barrister named George Code. 3 See: S. Šarèeviæ, New Approach to Legal Translation. The Hague/London/Boston, 2000, p XIII

2 Introduction to legal translation 1.3. Fact-situation in Polish legislative sentences The clauses which express fact-situation can be introduced in Polish by conjunctions such as je eli, jeœli, w przypadku gdy, w wypadku gdy, pod warunkiem, chyba e, o ile, w razie. See the following examples: je eli = where / if / embedded fact situation Je eli wspólnik nie uiœci³ dop³aty w okreœlonym terminie, obowi¹zany jest do zap³aty odsetek ustawowych.... (KSH 4 Art ) Where a shareholder fails to make an additional payment by the specified date, he shall be obliged to pay statutory interest.... (CCC1) 5 If a shareholder does not pay the additional contribution within a specified deadline, he shall pay statutory interest.... (PCCC) 6 w wypadku gdy = when Przepis powy szy stosuje siê odpowiednio w wypadku, gdy umowa zosta³a zawarta w imieniu osoby prawnej, która nie istnieje. (KC 7 Art. 39 2) The above provision shall correspondingly apply when a contract has been concluded in the name of a legal person which is non-existent. (PCC 8 ) pod warunkiem = on condition that Stosowanie niebezpiecznych substancji i niebezpiecznych preparatów chemicznych jest dopuszczalne pod warunkiem zastosowania œrodków zapewniaj¹cych pracownikom ochronê ich zdrowia i ycia. (KP 9 Art ) Hazardous chemical substances and preparations may be used on condition that measures are taken to protect the health and life of employees. (PLC) 10 chyba e = unless / save as Je eli akcjonariusz nie dokona³ wp³aty w terminie okreœlonym w 1, jest on obowi¹zany do zap³acenia odsetek ustawowych za opóÿnienie lub odszkodowania, chyba e statut stanowi inaczej. (KSH Art ) If the shareholder fails to make the payment on the date specified in 1, the shareholder shall pay statutory interest on delay or damages, unless the statutes provide otherwise. (PCCC) Save as otherwise provided in the company articles, a shareholder who has failed to make payment by the date referred to in paragraph 1 shall be liable to pay statutory interest for the default, or damages. (PCOCPAC) 11 4 Kodeks spó³ek handlowych (KSH). 5 Bem R., E. Kucharska, J. Marynowicz, A. M¹czka, Code of Commercial Companies, Kraków 2002 (CCC1). 6 K. Micha³owska, Polish Commercial Companies Code, Warszawa Kodeks Cywilny (KC). 8 D. Kierzkowska (ed.), The Polish Civil Code, Warszawa 1997 (PCC). 9 Kodeks Pracy (KP). 10 K. Micha³owska, Polish Labour Code, Warszawa 2003 (PLC). 11 D. Kierzkowska (ed.), The Polish Code of Commercial Partnerships and Companies, Warszawa 2001 (PCOCPAC). XIV

3 o ile = if Zmiany i uzupe³nienia zg³oszone przez wierzycieli mog¹ byæ przedmiotem obrad i g³osowania, o ile upad³y na nie siê zgodzi. (PU Art. 185) 12 The alterations and amendments submitted by the creditors may be discussed at the debates and may be put to the vote if the bankrupt approves them. (PCC) Embedded fact-situation in Polish legislative sentences The fact-situation may also take the form of an embedded modifier which is introduced in Polish legislative sentences by means of w razie, w przypadku, w wypadku. See the examples below: (i) w razie = in case W razie dokonanego naruszenia mo e on tak e ¹daæ, a eby osoba, która dopuœci³a siê naruszenia, dope³ni³a czynnoœci potrzebnych do usuniêcia jego skutków.... (KC). Art. 24 In case of an infringement he may demand that the person who committed the infringement perform acts necessary to remove its effects....(pcc) (ii) w razie = upon / should Statut mo e stanowiæ, e akcje ulegaj¹ umorzeniu w razie ziszczenia siê okreœlonego zdarzenia bez powziêcia uchwa³y przez walne zgromadzenie. (KSH Art ) The statutes may provide for share redemption upon the occurrence of a specific event without a resolution of the general meeting. (CCC1) The company articles may provide for redeeming shares without the resolution of the general meeting should a certain event occur. (PCOCPAC) (iii) w razie = when / in the case where / in the case of Przepisy 1, 2, 4 i 5 stosuje siê odpowiednio w razie ustania stosunku zale noœci. (KSH Art. 6 6) The provisions of 1, 2, 4, and 5 above shall apply accordingly to instances when the dependence relationship has ceased. (CCC1) The provisions of 1, 2, 4 and 5 shall apply mutatis mutandis in the case where a relation of dependence ceases to exist. (PCCC) The provisions of paragraphs 1, 2, 4 and 5 shall apply accordingly in the case of cessation of a relationship of dependency. (PCOCPAC) (iv) w wypadku = if Przepis 2 stosuje siê odpowiednio w wypadku wydzier awienia przedsiêbiorstwa lub ustanowienia na nim u ytkowania. The provision of paragraph 2 shall apply correspondingly if an enterprise is leased or a usufruct is established on it. 2. Tenses in legislative drafting 2.1. Tense in English legislative drafting The present tense used in drafting of French and Polish legislative texts is generally rendered by the mandatory shall in English. According to modern drafting manu- 12 Prawo upad³oœciowe (PU) Tense in English legislative drafting XV

4 Introduction to legal translation als, however, the drafter may also use present tense since the majority of rules have a continuing effect. They speak at the time of reading, not merely at the time of their adoption. The present tense thus includes the future tense. Therefore, the word shall is not to be used for stating a rule of law; the drafter should use it only to differentiate between mandatory and permissive statements. See the example below: A violation of any provision of this article shall be a misdemeanour. A violation of any provision of this article is a misdemeanour. The practice of using shall to state a legal result is called the false imperative and some legislative drafters and translators suggest that shall should be abandoned Tense in Polish legislative drafting There are no separate grammar rules to be applied in Polish legislative texts. One must only remember that the present tense is used in Polish drafting to express both normative content of a legislative sentence (legal / deontic modality) and fact-situation (epistemic modality). See the following example: stosuje siê = shall be governed / shall apply W sprawach okreœlonych w art. 1 1 nieuregulowanych w ustawie stosuje siê przepisy Kodeksu cywilnego. (KSH Art. 2) All matters set forth in Article 1 1 which are not regulated in this Act shall be governed by the provisions of the Civil Code. (CCC1) The provisions of the Civil Code shall apply to any matters specified in Article 1, paragraph 1 not regulated in this Act. (PCOCPAC) 3. Permission and authorisation in legislative sentences 3.1. Permission in English legislative sentences As acknowledged by many lawyers, an act which is not prohibited is permitted. Permissions and authorisations convey rights, privileges and powers on legal subjects. Permissions usually express a facultative operation which a person or legal institution is free to do. In other words, permissions cannot be violated. It must also be remembered that the granting of a permission serves as a means of cancelling a command, requirement, or a prohibition or making an exception to a command, requirement, or prohibition 13. As for authorisations, they are usually defined as a special type of legal speech act in which the permissive may can be interpreted as expressing a duty. May as permitted action The English drafters are advised to use may to authorise, but not require a person to take an action. To put it differently, may should be used to denote discretionary authority. 13 See: S. Šarèeviæ, op. cit., p XVI

5 3.2. Authorisation in English legislative sentences It is lawful to / it shall be lawful to = dopuszcza siê / jest zgodne z prawem It is lawful for a person to use such force as is reasonable to prevent the suicide of another person or any act which the person believes on reasonable grounds would, if committed, result in the suicide of another person. (Crimes Act 1900 Sect ) It shall be lawful for collecting officers to receive certified checks drawn on National and State banks and trust companies, during such time and under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, in payment for duties on imports, and all public dues, including special customs deposits. (US Law Collection Title 19 Customs and Duties 15 ) 3.2. Authorisation in English legislative sentences Authorisation confers power on a natural or legal person to perform an act which otherwise that person would not be permitted to perform 16 and can be formulated by using the quasi modal phrases such as be entitled to, be authorised, have the right to... and so forth. All these phrases usually appear in the indicative tense. Be entitled to = byæ uprawnionym do To create a right, drafters should use is/are entitled to, not shall be entitled to. At the same time, it must be noted that shall be entitled to appears mostly in main clauses which present statements of law, whereas be entitled in the present tense indicative mood occurs in subordinate clauses expressing fact-situation. Be empowered = byæ umocowanym The Board is empowered, as hereinafter provided, to prevent any person from engaging in any unfair labor practice. (US Law Collection Title 29 Labor 17 ). The agent who receives the fugitive into his custody shall be empowered to transport him to the jurisdiction from which he has fled. (US Law Collection Title 18 - Crimes and Criminal Procedure 18 ) Be authorised / authorised = byæ upowa nionym A person is authorised to carry out a forensic procedure on a suspect with the informed consent of the suspect. [Crimes Act 1914 (Act No. 12 of 1914)] The corporation shall be authorized to charge a fee to the small business borrower, in an amount determined by the office pursuant to regulation. (California Corporations Code 19 ) 14 Retrieved from: ca190082/?quwry=title+%28+%22crime+act+1900%22+%29 15 Retrieved from: 16 See: S. Šarèeviæ, op. cit., p Retrieved from: 18 Retrieved from: 19 Retrieved from: XVII

6 Introduction to legal translation Shall have the power to = mieæ prawo do The Secretary shall have the power to Delegation of functions; appointment of personnel, technical assistance to make delegations, to appoint such agents and employees.... (US Code Title US Law Collection Title 29 Labor Section ) 3.3. Negation of command, prohibition and requirement in English legislative sentences As mentioned above, permission can also be construed as cancellation of a command, prohibition or requirement. This is done by means of negation. Use of shall in permissions Generally, drafters are advised against using shall to grant permissions. According to drafting manual of North Dakota 21, shall not and no person shall mean that no one is required to act. In other words, a provision that includes one of these phrases negates the obligation, but not permission to act. Thus it has been suggested that in prohibiting action, drafters should avoid shall not and use may not instead. This approach, however, is not in line with Coode s recommendations; for Coode it shall not be lawful expresses a prohibition which in fact can be better formulated by using no person shall. Coode s suggestions have been accepted in Britain and the Commonwealth. (1) shall not be required = nie jest wymagany The Secretary of State shall not be required by subsection (5) to lay before Parliament, or may exclude from what he does to lay, anything the publication of which, in his opinion- (a) would be against the interests of national security; (b) could prejudice the prevention or detection of crime or the apprehension or prosecution of offenders; or (c) could jeopardise the safety of any person. (Police Reform Act ) (2) shall not require = nie wymaga In prescribing regulations under paragraph (1), the Secretary - (A) shall not require any person to file returns on magnetic media unless such person is required to file at least 250 returns during the calendar year, and (B) shall take into account (among other relevant factors) the ability of the taxpayer to comply at reasonable cost with the requirements of such regulations. (US Law Collection Title 26 Internal Revenue Code 23 ) (3) No... shall be required = nie wymaga siê No person shall be required to deduct and withhold any amount under subsection (a) with respect to a disposition if paragraph (2), (3), (4), (5), or (6) applies to the transaction. (US Law Collection Title 26 Internal Revenue Code) 20 Retrieved from: Legislative Drafting Manual, available at: bills/docs/pdf/part6.pdf 22 Retrieved from: 23 Retrieved from: XVIII

7 3.4. Permission and authorisation in Polish legislative sentences (4) Nothing... shall require = nie wymaga siê Nothing in this section shall require the payment of tax with respect to any calendar quarter or other period if the tax under section 3301 for such period, plus any unpaid amounts for prior periods in the calendar year, does not exceed $100. (US Law Collection Title 26 Internal Revenue Code) 3.4. Permission and authorisation in Polish legislative sentences The Polish performative verbs that express permission 24 are wolno, móc, zezwalaæ, dopuszczaæ and descriptive forms such as byæ dozwolonym, byæ dopuszczalnym. See the following examples: (i) wolno = shall be permissible Wolno zatrudniaæ tylko tych m³odocianych, którzy: 1) ukoñczyli co najmniej gimnazjum, 2) przedstawi¹ œwiadectwo lekarskie stwierdzaj¹ce, e praca danego rodzaju nie zagra a ich zdrowiu. (KP Art ) It shall be permissible to employ only those young adults who: 1) have completed at least junior high school; 2) present a medical certificate stating that work of a particular type is not hazardous to their health. (PLC) (ii) wolno = shall be free Je eli wartoœæ wk³adów niepieniê nych lub przedmiotów i praw maj¹tkowych, nabywanych przed zarejestrowaniem, ustalona przez bieg³ych rewidentów jest ni sza przynajmniej o jedn¹ pi¹t¹ od wartoœci, oznaczonej w sprawozdaniu za³o ycieli, wolno ka demu subskrybentowi zrzec siê uczestnictwa w spó³ce. (KH 25 Art. 325) Where the value of non-cash contributions or propriety rights and things acquired prior to registration, determined by expert auditors, is lower by at least one fifth than the value indicated in the promoters report, each subscriber shall be free to resign from participation in the company. (PCC2 26 ) (iii) wolno = shall be authorised W³aœcicielowi wolno w poœcigu za rojem wejœæ na cudzy grunt, powinien jednak naprawiæ wynik³¹ st¹d szkodê. (KC Art. 182) In pursuing the swarm the owner shall be authorised to enter the land of another person but he has to redress the resulting damage. (PCC) (iv) mo e = may / shall have the right Odwo³aæ prokurê mo e ka dy wspólnik maj¹cy prawo prowadzenia spraw spó³ki. (KSH Art. 41 2) The commercial power of attorney may be revoked by any partner who has the right to manage the affairs of the partnership. (PCCC) 24 Wronkowska and Zieliñski use the term competence (kompetencja) in reference to permission and authorisation. (See: Problemy i zasady redagowania tekstów prawnych, Warszawa, Urz¹d Rady Ministrów) 25 Kodeks handlowy (KH). 26 D. Kierzkowska & A. Wiœniewski (ed.), The Polish Commercial Code, Warszawa, 1998, (PCC2). XIX

8 Introduction to legal translation Every partner having the right to conduct affairs of the partnership shall have the right to revoke the procuration. (PCOCPAC) In Polish legislative texts, there is also mo na to be found. It is another form of móc, and it occurs in subjectless constructions. Polish legislators use mo na when they address the general public; they do not name the legal subject of the norm. This should be obvious from the context. See the example below: (v) mo na = may Potr¹cenia z tytu³ów wymienionych w 1 i 2 mo na równie dokonaæ z urzêdu. (OP Art. 64 3) 27 Set-offs under the rights listed in 1 and 2 may also be made ex officio. (AORFT) 28 (vi) jest dopuszczalny = is possible Uk³ad jest dopuszczalny tylko wtedy, gdy zapewnione jest zaspokojenie wierzycieli uprzywilejowanych i wierzycieli masy upad³oœci, chyba e zgodz¹ siê oni na zawarcie uk³adu. (PU Art. 174) The arrangement is possible only where a guarantee exists for the satisfaction of preferential creditors and creditors of the bankruptcy estate, or where they have agreed to the making of the arrangement. (PCC) (vii) jest dopuszczalne = is admissible Potr¹cenie jednak jest dopuszczalne, je eli nabywca sta³ siê wierzycielem upad³ego wskutek sp³acenia jego d³ugu,....(pu Art. 34 1) The set-off is admissible, however, where the transferee has become the bankrupt s creditor by paying off his debt....(pcc) (viii) jest dopuszczalne = may Stosowanie niebezpiecznych substancji i niebezpiecznych preparatów chemicznych jest dopuszczalne pod warunkiem zastosowania œrodków zapewniaj¹cych pracownikom ochronê ich zdrowia i ycia. (KP Art ) Hazardous chemical substances and preparations may be used on condition that measures are taken to protect the health and life of employees. (PLC) (ix) dopuszczalne jest = may / shall be allowed Dopuszczalne jest u ywanie w obrocie skrótu sp. j. (KSH Art. 24 2) The partnership may use the abbreviated form sp. j. in business dealings. (CCC1) The abbreviation sp.j. may be used in business dealings. (PCCC) The abbreviation sp.j. shall be allowed to be used in trading. (PCOCPAC) (x) jest dozwolone = shall be permitted / shall be allowed / may W przypadkach okreœlonych w 1 pkt. 1 i 2 nabycie akcji w³asnych przez spó³kê jest dozwolone tylko wtedy, gdy zosta³y spe³nione ³¹cznie nastêpuj¹ce warunki: 1) nabyte akcje zosta³y w pe³ni pokryte. (KSH Art ) 27 Ordynacja podatkowa (OP). 28 K. Miller and J. Yrkoski, Ordynacja Podatkowa. Act on Rules for Taxation, Warszawa 2002, (AORFT). XX

9 3.6. Negative obligation in Polish legislative sentences Under the circumstances referred to in (1) and (2) above, the acquisition by the company of its own shares shall be permitted only upon joint fulfilment of the following conditions: (1) the acquired shares have been fully paid up. (CCC1) In the events stipulated in 1 points 1 and 2, the acquisition of its own shares by the company shall be allowed only if the following conditions have been all satisfied: 1) the acquired shares have been paid for in full. (PCCC) In the cases referred to in paragraph 1, subparagraphs 1 and 2, the company may acquire its own shares only if the following conditions have been satisfied jointly: 1) acquired shares are fully paid up. (PCOCPAC) (xi) zezwala = permit Do przestrzegania tajemnicy skarbowej obowi¹zane s¹ równie inne osoby, którym udostêpniono informacje objête tajemnic¹ skarbow¹, chyba e na ich ujawnienie zezwala przepis praw. (OP Art ) Other persons to whom information covered by fiscal confidentiality was made accessible shall also observe fiscal confidentiality, unless the provisions of law permit the disclosure of such. (AORFT) 3.5. Explicit limitation in permissions in Polish legislative sentences Some prohibitions can be transformed into permissions by making the statement of law positive as well as the excluded condition. In Polish jedynie and/or tylko are used to introduce the condition: (i) mo e jedynie i tylko = may only and if / shall not other than and only Udzia³ mo e byæ umorzony jedynie po wpisie spó³ki do rejestru i tylko w przypadku, gdy umowa spó³ki tak stanowi. (KSH Art ) A share may be redeemed only after the company has been registered and if the articles of association so provide. (CCC1) A share may be redeemed only following registration of the company in the register and only if the articles of association so provide. (PCCC) Shares shall not be redeemed other than upon the company being entered in the register and only where the company deed so provides. (PCOCPAC) (ii) mog¹ tylko w przypadku gdy = may only if / can only where / may only in the case if Nowe interesy mog¹ byæ podejmowane tylko w przypadku, gdy jest to niezbêdne do ukoñczenia spraw w toku. (KSH Art. 77) New business may be undertaken only if this is indispensable for the closing of the current business. (CCC1) New business can be transacted only where this is necessary to close the business in progress. (PCCC) New interests may be undertaken only in the case if it is necessary to finish the pending matters. (PCOCPAC) 3.6. Negative obligation in Polish legislative sentences As asserted above, permission can also be expressed by negation of obligation. Occasionally, the Polish drafter resorts to the negation of the modal auxiliary musieæ, XXI

10 Introduction to legal translation that of other performative verbs such as wymagaæ, obowi¹zywaæ and the negation of descriptive forms such as byæ zobowi¹zanym, byæ obowi¹zanym. Negation is manifested in Polish by means of negative markers. They are either free forms such as the negative particle nie or affixes. (i) nie musi does not have to Œwiadek nie musi byæ obecny przy czynnoœciach kontrolnych dotycz¹cych przeprowadzenia dowodu z ksi¹g, ewidencji, zapisków lub innych dokumentów. (OP Art ) The witness does not have to be present for audit acts relating to gathering evidence from books, records, notes, or other documents. (AORFT) (ii) nie jest obowi¹zany = shall not be obliged / shall not be obligated Komandytariusz nie jest obowi¹zany do zwrotu tego, co pobra³ tytu³em zysku na podstawie sprawozdania finansowego,... (KSH Art ) A limited partner shall not be obliged to return whatever he received as profit on the basis of the financial statements. (CCC1) A limited partner shall not be obligated to return what he received in respect of profit under the financial report. (PCCC) A limited partner shall not be required to refund what he collected as profit on the basis of financial statement. (PCOCPAC) (iii) nie wymaga = shall not be necessary Projekt rozporz¹dzenia, o którym mowa w 1, nie wymaga skierowania do zaopiniowania przez organizacje zwi¹zkowe i organizacje pracodawców. (KP Art ) It shall not be necessary to seek an opinion of trade union organizations and organizations of employers on draft regulation referred to in paragraph. (PLC) (iv) nie wymaga = shall not require Orzeczenie o odpowiedzialnoœci, o której mowa w 1,..., nie wymaga uprzedniego wydania decyzji okreœlaj¹cej wysokoœæ zaleg³oœci podatkowych spó³ki. (OP Art ) A decision [orzeczenie] on the liability referred to in 1..., shall not require prior issuance of an administrative specifying the amount of the partnership s tax arrears. (AORFT) (v) nie byæ zobowi¹zanym shall not Wspólnicy którzy po up³ywie terminu szeœciomiesiêcznego, przewidzianego w 1 artyku³u poprzedzaj¹cego, otrzymali w dobrej wierze przypadaj¹c¹ na nich czêœæ maj¹tku spó³ki, nie s¹ zobowi¹zani do jej zwrotu celem pokrycia nale noœci wierzycieli. (KH Art ) Shareholders who, after the expiry of the six-month period provided for under paragraph 1 of the preceding Article, have obtained in good faith the part of the company s assets due to them, shall not return it in order to cover the creditors claim. (PCC2) It must be remembered that shall not may also be interpreted as prohibition to perform a legal act in this context to return the company s assets which may jeopar- XXII

11 3.7. Authorisation in Polish legislative sentences dise correct rendering of legal modality as such. In the case where construction approaches of the same perfomative phrase vary among different TT recipients, it is more advisable to use shall not be required, the interpretation of which is clear and unambiguous to target receivers Authorisation in Polish legislative sentences To convey an authorisation, the Polish drafter uses the following verbs and phrases in the normative indicative: (i) jest uprawniony = shall be entitled Ka dy wspólnik jest uprawniony i zobowi¹zany do prowadzenia spraw spó³ki. (KC) Each partner shall be entitled and bound to manage the partnership s affairs. (PCC) (ii) uprawnia = entitles Organ podatkowy, w drodze decyzji, okreœla wysokoœæ straty poniesionej przez podatnika, je eli wysokoœæ straty ró ni siê od wysokoœci wynikaj¹cej ze z³o onej deklaracji, a poniesienie straty, zgodnie z przepisami prawa podatkowego, uprawnia do skorzystania z ulg podatkowych. (OP Art. 24) A tax authority through an administrative decision shall specify the amount of a loss suffered by a taxpayer if the amount of a loss differs from the amount proceeding from a filed declaration and incurring a loss entitles tax reliefs to be used in accordance with provisions on tax law. (AORFT) (iii) uprawnienie przys³uguje = the right shall vest in Uprawnienie, o którym mowa w art. 64 1, przys³uguje równie podatnikom w stosunku do gminy z tytu³u: 1) prawomocnego wyroku s¹dowego wydanego na podstawie art Kodeksu cywilnego. (OP Art. 65 1) The right referred to in Article 64 1 shall also vest in a taxpayer in relation to a district, county, or province under: (1) final judicial judgement issued on the basis of Article of the Civil Code. (AORFT) (iv) uprawnienie przys³uguje =... shall be entitled Akcjonariuszowi spó³ki publicznej przys³uguje uprawnienie do imiennego œwiadectwa depozytowego wystawionego przez podmiot prowadz¹cy rachunek papierów wartoœciowych zgodnie z przepisami o publicznym obrocie papierami wartoœciowymi. (KSH Art ) A shareholder of a public company shall be entitled to receive a registered depository certificate issued by a an entity maintaining a securities account pursuant to the provisions of the Act on Public Trading in Securities. (CCC1) (v) upowa nia = entitle Prokura upowa nia do wszystkich czynnoœci s¹dowych i pozas¹dowych, jakie s¹ zwi¹zane z prowadzeniem jakiegokolwiek przedsiêbiorstwa zarobkowego. (KH Art. 61) The right of commercial representation shall entitle to all judicial and extrajudicial acts connected with running any type of a profit making enterprise. (PCC2) XXIII

12 Introduction to legal translation (vi) upowa nia = shall authorise Kto przekazuje drugiemu (odbiorcy przekazu) œwiadczenie osoby trzeciej (przekazanego), upowa nia tym samym odbiorcê przekazu do przyjêcia, a przekazanego do spe³nienia œwiadczenia na rachunek przekazuj¹cego. (KC Art. 921) Whoever transfers to another party (the remittee) a performance of a third party (the remitter) shall authorise thereby the remittee to accept the performance and the remitter to effect it on the account of the remitting party. (PCC) (vii) ma prawo shall have the right / shall be entitled / is entitled Je eli w drodze egzekucji ma nast¹piæ sprzeda udzia³u, (...) spó³ka ma prawo przedstawiæ osobê, która nabêdzie udzia³ (...). (KSH Art ) Where a share... is to be disposed of through execution, the company shall have the right to designate a person who shall acquire the share....(ccc1) If, in the course of enforcement proceedings, there is to be a sale of the share... the company shall be entitled to present the party who will acquire the share....(pccc) Where a share to be sold under execution is... transferable only subject to the consent of the company... the company is entitled to present a person willing to acquire the share....(pcocpac) (viii) jest umocowany shall be entitled W braku odmiennej umowy lub uchwa³y wspólników ka dy wspólnik jest umocowany do reprezentowania spó³ki w takich granicach, w jakich jest uprawomocniony do prowadzenia jej spraw. (KC Art. 866) In the absence of contrary provisions of the deed of partnership or a partner s resolution, each partner shall be entitled to represent the partnership within the limits to which he is entitled to conduct its affairs. (PCC) 3.8. Obligation and entitlement in Polish legal provisions Occasionally, legislators wish to include both obligation and power within the same provision. This is done by use of doublets: byæ uprawnionym i obowi¹zanym and mieæ prawo i obowi¹zek. See the following examples: (i) jest uprawniony i obowi¹zany = shall have the right and duty / shall be entitled and obligated to / may and shall... Odwo³any cz³onek zarz¹du jest uprawniony i obowi¹zany z³o yæ wyjaœnienia (...). (KSH Art ) The removed member of the management board shall have the right and duty to furnish explanations. (CCC1) A dismissed member of the management board shall be entitled and obligated to offer explanations....(pccc) The recalled member of the management board may and shall... furnish explanations. (PCOCPAC) (ii) s¹ obowi¹zani i uprawnieni = shall have the right and duty / shall be obligated and entitled / shall have the duty and right to Je eli zarz¹d jest wieloosobowy, wszyscy jego cz³onkowie s¹ obowi¹zani i uprawnieni do wspólnego prowadzenia spraw spó³ki (...). (KSH Art ) XXIV

13 Where the management board is composed of more than one member, all of its members shall have the right and duty to jointly conduct the company s affairs. (CCC1) If the management board comprises several members, all the members shall be obligated and entitled to jointly manage the affairs of the company. (PCCC) Where the management board consists of more than one person, all members shall have the duty and right to jointly manage the affairs of the company. (PCOCPAC) 4. Prohibition in legislative sentences 4.1. Prohibition in English legislative sentences Prohibitions are legal speech acts with the illocutionary force of forbidding 29. The most common type of prohibitions are acts which person/s and / or authorities are explicitly forbidden to perform and whose performance is punishable by sanction. Thus, Weinberger regards such prohibitions as negative commands: X is obliged to refrain from performing act A; if X performs act A, he/she/it is subject to punishment. Following this logic any criminal provisions are taken to constitute prohibitions. The Anglophone drafters may use shall not, may not and must not in legal prohibitions. To impose a duty not to act a prohibition the drafter may use shall, must, or may combined with not as follows: The commissioner shall not impose an additional fee for late applications. A person must not operate a motor vehicle in violation of motor vehicle noise rules adopted by the pollution control agency Use of may not in legal prohibitions According to the 2003 Legislative Drafting Manual of North Dakota, the drafter should use may not if a right, privilege or power is intended to be denied. In other words, may not negates the permission to act and functions as a complete prohibition. Phrase The commissioner may not issue a license. A person may not operate a without a license. The clerk may not release the report Prohibition in English legislative sentences Interpretation It is beyond the power of the commissioner to issue the license. A person is not permitted to do the specified act without a license. The clerk is prohibited from releasing the report. Although this construction is very popular in American legislative drafting, caution must be taken since may not can also be misread especially by people who are not acquainted with the conventions of legal drafting or with the principles of statutory interpretation. 29 See: S. Šarèeviæ, op. cit., p XXV