Working Papers. Faculty of International Business and Economics. Poznan University of Economics WP/2013/9

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1 Working Papers Faculty of International Business and Economics Poznan University of Economics WP/2013/9 Łukasz Wróblewski New approach towards research in cross-border region Poznan, August 16, 2013

2 New approach towards research in cross-border region Łukasz Wróblewski 1 Abstract A cross-border region is a key focus of many researchers representing various academic disciplines. However, the concepts of a cross-border region illustrated in the academic literature are not such as to demonstrate clear delimitation criteria. As a consequence, it is significant to carry out an in-depth analysis of the literature on cross-border cooperation, border theory, border regions and areas as well as borderlands in order to capture the essence and definition of the cross-border region. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the cross-border region as the highest form of border regions integration and to indicate its characteristics and delimitation criteria taking into account national borders functions, typology of border regions and cross-border cooperation. Keywords: border states, border regions, cross-border regions, cross-border interaction, the Polish-German borderland JEL Codes: F00, F15, H70, R10, R11 Introduction A cross-border region is a key focus of many researchers representing various academic disciplines. However, the concepts of cross-border region illustrated in the literature on the subject do not point to clear delimitation criteria. What is more, these criteria are very often adopted in a selective and subjective way. It should be noted in that context that the emergence of new forms of border regions cross-border cooperation and the change of formalisation and the permeability of the national 1 Paper accepted for publication by Tadeusz Kowalski. All remaining errors are those of the author. The author would like to thank Ida Musiałkowska for helpful comments. Łukasz Wróblewski is a Ph.D. candidate at the European Studies Department, Faculty of International Business and Economics, Poznan University of Economics, address: lukasz.wroblewski@ue.poznan.pl 2

3 borders would suggest that the concept and definition of a cross-border region should be reanalysed. The aim of this study is to present the cross-border region as the highest form of border regions integration and to indicate its features and delimitation criteria taking into account national borders functions, typology of border regions and cross-border cooperation. To that end, the author attempts to present the integration process of border regions. 1. The notion of border region In order to precisely define the notion of border region one should in the first place define the notion of region. However, the major problem within this context is the fact that there is a lack of commonly accepted definition in the literature on this subject [Chądzyński et al. 2007]. Depending on the perspective and research discipline historical, cultural, political, economic, administrative, social, planning and demographic regions may be distinguished [Klasik 1974, Korenik 1999, as cited in: Chądzyński et al. 2007; Domański 2002; Borys 1999b]. In conceptual terms a region may be regarded as a coherent and homogenous area which has been determined on the basis of highly specific criteria [cf. Roszkowska and Roszkowski 2007; Domański 2002]. In this respect the region, in the literature on this subject, is very often identified as an administrative unit [Chądzyński et al. 2007; Korenik 2011]. As a consequence a border region may be considered as an administrative region or subregion whose one administrative border overlaps a national border [Praktisches Handbuch zur Grenzübergreifenden Zusammenarbeit 2000; Roszkowska and Roszkowski 2007; Hładkiewicz and Bednarski 2000]. This definition is extremely significant as it illustrates the border region in a universal way and lays down delimitation criteria i.e. the region is located in direct contact with a national border and the administrative division. As a result a province located directly at a national border [Raczyk, Dołzbłasz and Leśniak- Johann 2012], a border district, a group of districts, a commune and a group of communes may be all considered as border regions. For the purposes of this work it has been assumed that a LAU1 unit [see Rakowska 2013] located directly at a national border constitutes the border region. Attempting to define a border region the typology of border regions by Oscar J. Martinez [1994] needs to be presented. Depending on the degree of cross-border cooperation, relations between the respective countries and interactions between the communities O. J. Martinez distinguishes four types of border regions i.e. alienated border 3

4 regions, coexistent border regions, interdependent border regions and integrated border regions (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Models of borderlands interaction by O. J. Martinez alienated coexistent border interdependent integrated border regions regions border regions border regions Source: [Martinez 1994, p.7]. According to the author alienated border regions are the ones with no cross-border connections. It is a consequence of relations between the countries characterised by open conflict or a state of war, existing political discrepancies, incidence of nationalism, ideological and religious hostility as well as cultural and ethnic differences. These factors influence high formalisation and the lack of the permeability of a border. The effects of which are the lack of cross-border cooperation, low levels of population density and spatial development [Martinez 1994]. Coexistent border regions are characterised by the disappearance of open conflict. However, barriers preventing the cross-border cooperation i.e. emotional barriers, irregular status and course of national borderlines [Martinez 1994] still exist. Developing cooperation at culture, economy and policy levels is only possible when the course and status of the national borderline is accepted on the basis of bilateral or international agreements. On the other hand, another type of interdependent border regions refers to those border regions that maintain mutual relations and interactions which are then manifested in developing cross-border cooperation and intensifying the movement of persons, goods and capital. As it is pointed out by Martinez, the economies of the border regions become interconnected. This process is strengthened because the cooperating regions are characterised by the similar level of socio-economic development. Disparities, on the other hand, might marginalise a less developed region [Martinez 1994]. 4

5 Integrated border regions comprise the final type of border regions indicated by Martinez. The characteristic feature of these regions is the disappearance of a barrier within trade and social relations. An important factor of the integrated border regions is the intensive and free movement of people, goods, services and capital [see Martinez 1994; Czarczyńska and Śledziewska 2003]. Moreover, neighbouring countries are drawn into further integration as a result of affiliation to international and/or supranational organizations. Nationalism is eliminated in favour of international ideology based on peaceful coexistence, raising the standards of living and voluntary renunciation of a part of sovereignty [Martinez 1994]. 2. New approach towards a cross-border region Delimitation criteria presented in the academic literature do not illustrate a crossborder region in a precise way. Furthermore, many authors do not present those criteria at all [Klasik and Milerski (ed.) 2001; Koćwin 2001; Greta 2008; Miszczuk 1998; Hładkiewicz and Bednarski 2000]. In order to define the notion of a cross-border region in a precise way it is vital to refer to the definition of the border region adopted in this article. In this context, it is assumed that a cross-border region is a certain area of a supranational nature which consists of at least two border regions. However, the illustrated approach is relatively simplified as it does not point to features and the way in which a cross-border region is formed. Assuming that with the term region one may only define a certain area that is characterised by cohesion and homogeneity [cf. Dobrowolski and Łata 2002; Borys 1999a; 1999b; Domański 2002] it is essential to indicate its universal features and criteria of cohesion and homogeneity of cross-border region. The universality of the concept of the cross-border region will allow delimitation of a cross-border region in different parts of the world. Thus, it is a mistaken hypothesis that the cross-border region and cross-border cooperation are the domain of the EU Member States [cf. Perkmann 1999, as cited in: Raczyk, Dołzbłasz and Leśniak-Johann 2012], US-Mexico border being a perfect example of that [cf. Martinez 1994; Bartnik 2009]. Therefore, the possibility of adopting a universal definition and delimitation criteria for the cross-border region should be considered. 5

6 The starting point for further consideration of this article is the statement that the cross-border region cannot constitute a normative region. Within this context, the cross-border region constitutes an area encompassing at least two border regions, located at the opposite sides of the national border, which was created as a result of cross-border cooperation [cf. Hrbek et al. 1995; Kawałko 1997; Gorzym-Wilkowski 1999; Dobrowolski and Łata 2002; Borys 1999a; 1999b]. It is the border location that makes the local authorities and communities of the border areas struggle with similar problems. These problems might stem from the fact that a national border is not only a linear formation demarcating national territories but also a contact point joining these two structures [Sanguin 1983, Vallusi 1976, as cited in : Rykiel 1991; Gorzelak and Krok, (ed.) 2006; Krok and Smętkowski (ed.) 2006]. Another factor which has a bearing on the development of border areas integration is the degree of formalisation and the permeability of a national border. Formalisation shall be understood as formal requirements which need to be met in order to cross the national border [Rykiel 1991; 2006; Kawałko 1997; Gorzym-Wilkowski 1999; Dobrowolski and Łata 2002; Borys 1999a; 1999b]. In the EU these requirements might include the following: the necessity to possess a valid travel document, a visa and financial means allowing to cover one s personal needs during the stay and to return to one s country. Moreover, the purpose of crossing the border has to be justified and it is necessary to determine the duration of the stay in the foreign country. At the same time, due to security reasons, the possibility to cross the border might be limited or excluded for those persons who might be regarded as a hazard or threat to the public order or internal security [cf. The Schengen acquis; Borawska-Kedzierska and Strąk 2011]. Closely related to the concept of formalisation of national border is the concept of borderland regime demonstrated not only by the degree of border control and formalisation of the national border but also regulations concerning visa and asylum policies. By contrast, the concept of the permeability of the border refers to the movement of persons, goods, and services measured in the unit of time [cf. Hartshorne 1933, as cited in: Rykiel 1991; 2006; Bartnik 2009; Gorzym-Wilkowski 2005; Yuill 1965, Komornicki 1999, as cited in: Ciok. 2004]. It should be noted in this context that the functions of national borders as well as their degree of formalisation and permeability are not constant, one example of which is the change of national borders within the European Union and the Schengen Area. As the permeability of a national border increases and the degree of its formalisation 6

7 decreases, the free movement of people, goods, services and capital, is intensified [cf. Balawajder and Grochalski 2010; Wiktor 2005; Szachoń-Pszenny 2011]. It is also vital to create stable conditions for cross-border economic activity and trade as well as to remove trade barriers through regulations at a supranational level, an excellent example of which are the objectives of the Single European Market, customs unions and free trade areas [cf. Nowak-Far 2013; Małuszyńska and Gruchman (ed.) 2012; Barcz, Kawecka- Wyrzykowska and Michałowska-Gorywoda 2012; Wiktor 2005]. As a result the development of socio-economic relations between border regions emerging in the direction, volume and dynamics of the movement of goods, services, workers, capital and payment runs. Taking into account the fact that backcountry areas, dispersed settlement areas and cross-border regions might occur in borderland [see Sanguin 1983, as cited in Rykiel 1991; Bański et al. 2010], the concept of the cross-border region should also include occupancy levels of the areas of investigation. As the formalisation of a national border decreases the population may grow and become more dense in the border regions because then a national border stops functioning as a dividing line and a borderline as a buffer zone [Raczyk, Dołzbłasz and Leśniak-Johann 2012; Sanguin 1983, Vallusi 1976 as cited in: Rykiel 1991; Gorzelak and Krok, (ed.) 2006; Krok and Smętkowski (ed.) 2006]. On the other hand, as the population and socio-economic activity grow as a result of the increasing number of investments in the border region, the level of spatial development may be stepped up [cf. Bański et al. 2010]. What is also significant is the degree of the infrastructural cohesion of the border areas visible in the quality of infrastructure and the number of rail, road, maritime, river and air links between border regions. It might be expected in this context that border regions i.e. Frankfurt (Oder) and Słubice, Guben-Gubin, Görlitz-Zgorzelec and Česky Těšin, and Cieszyn as a result of easing formalisation and increasing permeability of the national border may operate as bipolar circuits (see Figure 2) both with regard to settlement patterns, planning and the implementation of spatial development as well as socio-economic development [cf. Jakubowicz and Ciok 2003; Zioło 2003]. Figure 2. Constitutive phases of bipolar circuit Source: [Zioło 2003, p. 33]. 7

8 Another vital factor determining the integration process of border regions and delimitation of the cross-border region is the institutionalised approach towards cross-border cooperation [cf. Borys 1999a; 1999a; Hrbek et al. 1995; Dobrowolski and Łata 2002]. In that regard, it must be observed that it is a mistaken hypothesis to state that the high level of institutionalisation of cross-border cooperation occurs only within the framework of Euroregional structures [see Miszczuk 1998; Greta 2008; Małuszyńska and Gruchman (ed.) 2012; Białobrzeska and Kisiel 2003; Koćwin 2001; Klasik andi Milerski (ed.) 2001; Kosiedowski (ed.) 2009; Solarz 2009a; 2009b]. It results from the fact that institutionalisation of cross-border cooperation involving setting up associations and working groups, occurs also outside Euroregions. A prominent example being European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation [see Rozporządzenie (WE) nr 1082/2006] and institutional cross-border cooperation in Polish-German border area between Frankfurt (Oder) and Słubice in terms of convening joint sessions of both city councils as well as establishing in 2010 a joint institution known as Frankfurt-Słubice Cooperation Centre [Słubicko-Frankfurcki Plan Działania 2010; Słubicko-Frankfurckie Centrum Kooperacji 2012]. By contrast, the intensity of cross-border cooperation depends on the areas to which this cooperation is extended. In this aspect, first type of cross-border cooperation is expected to be a cultural cooperation related to the possibility of crossing the border and culture diffusion. This is all the more important since a borderland is a culturally diverse zone [Białobrzeska and Kisiel 2003; Roszkowska and Roszkowski 2007]. Political cooperation and sharing good practices on local management may be another stage of the cross-border cooperation. The highest form of the cross-border cooperation, which requires not only local but also national and supranational regulation, is socio-economic cooperation of local authorities and economic entities [cf. Balawajder and Grochalski 2010]. The basis for the concept of border regions integration and cross-border region depiction is the typology of border regions by Oscar J. Martinez [1994] (see section 1) presented in this article. With reference to the illustrated typology (see Figure 1) it might be assumed that the decrease in formalisation and increase of the permeability of the national border leads to the enhancement of cross-border cooperation, which has a bearing on the development of socio-economic links between border regions. On the other hand, the increased number of socio-economic links and institutionalisation of the cross-border cooperation might have an impact on the building of a socio-economic space manifesting 8

9 itself in joint management, joint institutions of cross-border nature, creating joint development policies as well as forming cross-border labour and education markets. It follows from the foregoing considerations and analysis of the literature that the integration of border regions and the level of socio-economic dependence might be subject to socio-economic, cultural or institutional factors. Formalisation, permeability of a national border and the condition of international relations, are also of interest. It should, nevertheless, be noted that the growth of cross-border cooperation as a result of changing of formalisation degree and permeability of the national border, is possible because of actions taken at national, supranational and local levels. Actions taken at a local level are, in turn, subject to the relevant rules and relations at national and supranational levels. Thus, institutional bottom-up actions should be based on national and supranational rules. The status and course of the national border together with the degree of its formalisation and permeability are examples of such rules. The competence of local government to engage in cross-border cooperation may be equally important. Thus, it may be assumed that the integration of border regions is highly dependent on independent factors regulated at national and supranational levels and dependent factors resulting directly from regional and local levels. Independent factors may include formalisation degree, permeability of national border, acceptance of the course and status of national border and geopolitical relations. Dependent factors, on the other hand, may involve ethnic/cultural relations and relationships, degree of cross-border cooperation and its institutionalisation, taking joint initiatives, socio-economic cooperation manifesting itself in trade and trading of capital and services [Gruchman et al. 2003], commuting to work or school on a daily basis, service providers, cultural institutions, growth of infrastructure, starting up cross-border business activity or spatial planning intensification. That as a result cross-border region is the subsequent and more developed type of a border region. It is a result of highest integration of border regions after four types of regions described by Martinez [1994] (see section 1). At the same time when borderlands interactions takes place the border regions evolve from alienated border regions through coexistent regions, interdependent regions and integrated border regions to cross-border regions because of increase of cross-border cooperation and socio-economic links. Such a region may have features of a bipolar system. A system, whose components are characterised by various relations of internal and external nature. Relations of internal nature involve mutual links of border regions. External relations, on the other hand, manifest 9

10 Socio-economic criterium Dependent criteria Institutional criterium Cultural criterium National border criterium Independent criteria International relations criterium alienated border regions coexistent border regions interdependent border regions integrated border regions cross-border region themselves in links with external environment at local, regional and national levels, and also with international environment [cf. Zioło 2003; Jakubowicz and Ciok 2003]. Thus, the concept depicts cross-border region as a process consisting of at least two integrated border regions. Such a hypothesis precludes, at the same time, the possibility of demarcating cross-border region based on selective and subjective delimitation criteria i.e. direct contact of the regions as a consequence of being located at a national border [cf. Wróblewski 2013]. Summary of evolution of border regions, increase of integration and the set of criteria that may help to define each border region is presented in the Table 1. Table 1. Stages of border regions integration Confirmed course and status of national border X X X X Geopolitical relations between the countries High formalisation of national border X X X Medium formalisation of national border X Low formalisation of national border X Permeability of national border Attitude of one community towards the other community at the other side of national border Intensity of contacts between populations Degree of cultural diffusion Institutional cross-border cooperation based on the rule of joint preparation, joint implementation, joint staff and joint financing Socio-economic links and relations Degree of cross-border labour market formation Degree of cross-border education market formation Infrastructural cohesion

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